l-Ac^%\Z'  iq{^ 


Connecticut  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 
BULLETIN  196  NOVEMBER,  1917 


ECONOMY  IN   FEEDING  THE  FAMILY 


I 

Some  Essential  Facts  Regarding 
Nutrition 

By  JOHN  PHILLIPS  STREET  and  E.  H.  JENKINS 


CONTENTS 

The  Uses  of  Food 4 

»The  Chemical  Composition  of  Food 4 

The  Uses  of  Proteins,  Carbohydrates  and  Fats 5 

How  the  Quantities  and  Fuel  Values  of  Food  Ingredients  are  Expressed 6 

How  Many  Calories  does  the  Body  Need  Daily? 8 

Tables  Showing  Calories  in  one  "Portion"  of  Various  Foods 10 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  citizens  of  Connecti- 
cut who  apply  for  them,  and  to  others  as  far  as  the  editions  permit. 


CONNECTICUT  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

OFFICERS  AND  STAFF. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 
His  Excellency,  Marcus  H.  Holcomb,  ex-officio,  President. 

James  H.  Webb,   Vice  President Hamden 

George  A.  Hopson,  Secretary Wallingford 

E.  H.  Jenkins,  Director  and   Treasurer New  Haven 

Joseph  W.  Alsop Avon 

Wilson  H.  Lee Orange 

Frank  H.  Stadtmueller Elmwood 

Administration.  E.  H.  Jenkins,  Ph.D.,   Director  and  Treasurer. 

Miss  V.  E.   Cole,  Librarian  and  Stenographer. 
Miss  L.  M.  Brautlecht,    Bookkeeper  and  Stenographer. 
William  Veitch,  In  charge  of  Buildings  and  Grounds. 

Chemistry. 

Analytical  Laboratory.     John  Phillips  Street,   M.S..  Chemist  in  charge. 
E.  Monroe  Bailey,  Ph.D.,  i 

C.  B.   MoRisoN,  B.S.,  C.  E.  Shepherd,  \  Assistants. 
W.  L.  Adams,  B.S.,  M.d'Esopo,  Ph.B.    i 
Hugo  Lange,  Laboratory    Helper. 
V.  L.  Churchill,  Sampling  Agent. 

Protein  Research.  T.  B.  Osborne,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc,  Chemist  in  Charge. 

Miss  E.  L.  Ferry,   M.S.,  Assistant. 

Botany.  G.  P.  Clinton,  Sc.D.,   Botanist. 

E.  M.  Stoddard,  B.S.,  Assistant   Botanist. 

Florence  A.  McCormick,  Ph.D.,  Scientific  Assistant. 

G.  E.  Graham,  General  Assistant. 

Entomology.  W.  E.  Britton,  Ph.D.,   Entomologist;  State  Entomologist. 

B.  H.  Walden,  B.Agr.,  First  Assistant. 

Q.  S.  LowRY,  B.Sc,  I.  W.  Davis,  B.Sc,  \ 

M.  P.  Zappe,  B.S..  1  ^"w'-""^- 

Miss  G.  A.  Foote,  B.A.,  Stenographer. 

« 

Forestry.  Walter  O.  Filley,   Forester;  also  State  Forester 

and  State   Forest  Fire   Warden. 
A.  E.   Moss,   M.F.,  Assistant  State  and  Station   Forester. 
Miss  E.  L.  Avery,  Stenographer. 

Plant  Breeding.  Donald  F.  Jones,  M.S.,   Plant   Breeder. 

C.  D.  Hubbell,  Assistant. 

Vegetable  Growing.  W.  C.   Pelton. 


Economy  in  Feeding  the  Family. 


This  country  is  at  war  for  the  defense,  both  of  our  civil  insti- 
tutions and  of  our  public  and  private  property.  It  is  a  war 
which  will  be  decided  not,  like  most  previous  wars,  by  generals 
and  armed  men  alone,  but  by  the  great  home  army  of  producers 
and  savers.  Its  outcome  depends  largely  on  efficient  produc- 
tion on  the  farm  and  self-denial  in  the  home. 

For  the  first  time  in  our  history  the  food  supply  of  the  country 
is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  for  it  and  those  in  authority 
call  on  the  whole  population  to  reduce  to  the  utmost  their  use  of 
wheat,  beef,  pork,  sugar  and  animal  fats. 

This  reduction  is  quite  possible  if  done  reasonably.  A  sudden 
and  very  radical  change  of  diet,  however,  if  not  wisely  made,  may 
result  in  harm  to  many  individuals. 

It  is  most  urgent  that  those  who  provide  the  food  of  families 
should  have  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  principles  of  nutrition, 
of  the  amount  of  food  necessary  for  health  and  efficiency  and  of 
the  most  economical  methods  of  buying  and  preparing  food.  At 
present,  there  is  much  more  thought,  care  and  skill  shown  in 
selecting  the  rations  of  dairy  stock  and  swine  than  in  selecting 
the  rations  for  human  beings. 

This  and  the  following  bulletins  are  meant  to  help  in  the  diffu- 
sion of  this  necessary  knowledge.  We  are  aware  that  the  same 
ground  has  been  covered  in  many  respects  more  fully  and  ade- 
quately in  various  books,  but  the  fact  that  these  are  not  so  likely, 
as  are  our  station  bulletins,  to  reach  the  families  of  this  state 
justifies  our  attempt. 

There  is  also  much  work  of  our  own  station  which  is  directly 
useful  at  this  time  and  will  here  be  noticed.  This  was  one  of  the 
first  of  the  stations  to  undertake  the  examination  of  foods.  For 
many  years  its  chemical  department  has  been  engaged  in  their 
analysis  and  in  finding  and  exposing  inferior  and  adulterated 
foods. 


4  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION   BULLETIN    1 96. 

The  researches  of  Osborne  conducted  here  for  many  years 
on  the  constitution  of  the  protein  bodies  and  the  later  studies  of 
Osborne  and  Mendel  on  animal  nutrition  have  shown  that 
many  former  assumptions  regarding  the  role  of  proteins  in  food 
were  far  from  the  truth  and  have  prepared  the  way  for  a  great 
advance  in  the  economy  of  feeding  particularly  in  the  use  of 
proteins. 

Preliminary  to  any  comparison  of  different  kinds  of  food  ma- 
terial, a  brief  statement  is  needed  regarding 

The  Uses  of  Food. 

Food  has  two  distinct  uses.  It  builds  the  body  up  to  its  adult 
size  and  from  day  to  day  repairs  the  wear  and  tear  which  life 
involves ;  for  the  body  is  a  machine  which  only  can  be  repaired 
while  it  is  running  and  when  it  stops  can  never  be  started. 

Food  is  the  Builder  and  Repairer. 

The  other  use  of  food  is  to  furnish  power  sufficient  to  run  this 
machine  at  the  required  rate  of  speed.  Food  is  the  fuel  which 
gives  power  to  the  body,  just  as  coal  is  the  fuel  which  gives 
power  to  the  steam  engine. 

Food  is  the  source  of  all  the  body's  Energy. 

The  Chemical  Composition  of  Food. 

The  nutriment  in  human  food  chiefly  consists  of  proteins,  car- 
bohydrates, fats  and  mineral  matters  along  with  certain  unidenti- 
fied bodies  (vitamines)  which  are  present  in  very  small  amounts 
but  are  of  great  importance.  Most  foods  also  contain  water  and 
vegetable  foods  contain  woody  fiber  besides,  which  has  no  nutri- 
tive value  for  human  beings. 

Proteins,  of  which  the  white  of  eggs,  the  curd  of  milk  and 
gluten  of  wheat  are  types,  are  very  complex  substances,  each 
being  an  aggregation  of  fifteen  or  more  complex  bodies  (amino- 
acids)  all  of  them  containing  nitrogen  as  a  characteristic  ingredi- 
ent, so  that  foods  which  contain  much  protein  are  commonly 
called  nitrogenous  foods.  Such  foods  are  fish,  eggs  and  meats 
of  all  kinds.  Protein  is  also  an  important  ingredient  of  milk 
and  with  fat  makes  up  most  of  the  substance  of  cheese. 

Important  sources  of  protein  are  poultry,  fish,  eggs,  milk,, 
cheese,  dried  beans  and  dried  peas. 


THE    SPECIAL   USES    OF   THE    FOOD    INGREDIENTS.  5 

It  appears  that  the  animal  proteins,  poultry,  fish,  eggs  and  milk, 
are  more  valuable  as  food  than  those  of  vegetables  and  among 
the  vegetables  themselves  there  are  great  differences.  For  this 
reason  milk  or  meat,  in  moderate  quantities,  should  make  a  part 
of  the  daily  ration,  especially  that  of  children. 

Fats  scarcely  need  definition.  Butter,  oleomargarine,  lard  and 
vegetable  oils  consist  chiefly  of  fats;  and  cream,  milk,  cheese,  and 
certain  Ush,  like  salmon,  are  rich  in  fat.  Fats  are  a  more  costly 
part  of  the  ration  than  the  other  group  of  energy  producers,  the 
carbohydrates. 

Carbohydrates  are  compounds  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxy- 
gen. Common  examples  are  starch  and  sugar.  While  there  are 
other  carbohydrates  than  these,  starch  and  sugar  make  up  the 
bulk  of  the  carbohydrates  in  human  food. 

Rice,  potatoes,  bread,  macaroni  and  corn  are  all  important 
sources  of  carbohydrates.  They  contain  protein  and  fat  as  well, 
but  their  main  constituent  is  starch. 

Mineral  matters,  or  ash,  are  such  things  as  salt,  phosphates,  etc., 
which  are  found  in  most  foods  in  small  amount  and  which  remain 
as  ashes  if  the  food  is  completely  burned.  They  are  necessary  to 
the  body,  but  in  a  mixed  diet  rarely  need  consideration. 

"It  is  evident,"  says  Lusk,  "that  the  science  of  nutrition  in- 
cludes something  more  than  the  production  of  energy  from  fats, 
carbohydrates  and  protein.  There  must  be  certain  salts  and 
certain  qualities  of  protein  in  the  diet  and  there  must  be  minute 
quantities  of  vitamines." 

Concerning  vitamines  we  have  not  yet  very  certain  knowledge, 
but  that  they  are  growth-promoting  substances  and  necessary  in 
food  seems  certain.  In  a  mixed  diet  containing  both  animal  and 
vegetable  food,  probably  vitamines  are  never  deficient. 

The  Special  Uses  of  the  Proteins,  Carbohydrates  and  Fats 

OF  the  Food. 

Proteins:  To  meet  the  first  named  use  of  food;  namely,  to 
build  and  repair  the  body,  is  the  chief  use  of  the  proteins.  They 
are  the  flesh  builders.  No  other  food  ingredient  can  take  their 
place. 

One-fifth  of  the  water-free  substance  of  an  active  man  consists 
of  body  proteins  which  are  built  and  repaired  from  the  proteins 
of  the  food. 


6  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION   BULLETIN    1 96. 

An  adult  at  very  moderate  ivork  must  have  for  his  support  at 
least  75  grams  or  2%  ounces  of  protein  daily. 

To  meet  the  second  requirement;  namely,  to  supply  the  power 
and  heat  on  which  life  and  ability  to  work  depend,  is  the  chief  use 
of  the  fat  and  carbohydrates,  though  the  proteins  may  join  in  this 
work  when  supplied  in  excess. 

Power  and  heat  are  produced  in  the  body  in  the  same  way  as 
in  the  furnace  of  a  steam  boiler;  namely,  by  the  combustion  of 
fuel.  Fat,  sugar,  starch,  etc.,  are  chiefly  used  for  fuel.  They  are 
burned  in  the  body,  forming  carbonic  acid  and  water,  which  are 
given  off  in  the  breath  or  through  the  skin  and  kidneys :  But  in 
the  process  energy  is  developed  which  shows  itself  in  forms  of 
work — the  unconscious  work  of  the  heart  and  of  the  muscles 
which  control  breathing  and  do  the  other  housework  of  the  body 
— as  well  as  in  conscious  work  of  all  kinds.  Incidentally  much 
more  than  enough  heat  is  produced  to  keep  the  body  temperature 
at  about  98  °F. 

Just  as  coal  in  the  steam  engine  is  burned  chiefly  to  furnish 
power  to  the  machinery,  so  food  is  burned  to  do  the  w^ork  of  the 
body. 

When  eaten  in  quantity  more  than  sufficient  to  supply  energy 
the  fats  may  also  take  part  in  the  formation  of  body  fats  which 
serve  as  stored  fuel  for  emergencies. 

How  THE  Quantities  of  Food  Ingredients  and  Their  Energy 
Are  Expressed. 

The  quantities  of  protein,  fat  and  other  substances  which  make 
up  a  given  article  of  food  can  be  given  in  weight,  ounces  or 
grams,  but  are  usually  given  in  percentages — that  is,  in  parts  per 
100. 

Energy,  however,  cannot  be  directly  expressed  in  terms  of 
weight  or  per  cent.  Yet  we  must  have  an  accurate  measure  of  it 
in  order  to  state  at  all  accurately  the  amount  of  energy  which  the 
body  needs,  or  a  given  food  supplies.  Thi^  measure  of  energy  is 
the  Calory. 

As  the  foot  is  a  standard  for  measuring  length,  so  the  calor}- 
is  a  standard  for  measuring  heat  energy.  A  calory  is  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tcmpcrai^irc  of  a  kilogram  of 


HOW  THE  QUANTITIES  OF  FOOD  INGREDIENTS  ARE  EXPRESSED.       7 

water  one  degfiee  Centigrade  {or  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
about  four  pounds  of  ivater  i°Fahr.)  This  quantity  can  be  very 
accurately  determined  in  any  food  by  means  of  an  elaborate  ap- 
paratus called  a  calorimeter.  Many  careful  experiments  with  a 
great  number  of  food  ingredients  have  shown  that  an  ounce  of 
pure  protein  or  of  a  pure  carbohydrate  will  yield  ii6  calories  or 
heat  units  and  an  ounce  of  pure  fat  264  calories ;  that  is,  a 
given  amount  of  fat  has  about  2.25  times  as  much  heat  value  as 
the  same  amount  of  either  protein  or  carbohydrates. 

Otherwise  stated,  one  gram  of  either  protein  or  carbohydrates 
yields  4.1  calories  and  one  gram  of  fat  yields  9.3.  For  general 
use  these  values  may  be  simplified  to  4  and  9. 

It  appears  that  proteins  and  carbohydrates  have  the  same  value 
for  energy  production,  and  fats  have  more  than  twice  this  value. 
The  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  to  a  certain  extent  interchangeable 
in  the  diet;  that  is,  in  his  diet  one  may  get  from  fat  more  or  less 
energy,  or  capacity  to  do  work,  according  to  his  taste,  or  for  rea- 
sons of  economy. 

The  above  explanation  will  make  clear  the  meaning  of  the 
printed  analyses  of  food.  For  example,  the  average  composi- 
tion of  bread  in  the  Connecticut  market  as  shown  by  our  recent 
analyses  is: 

Per  cent. 
(Parts 

per  100.) 

Water 33-8 

Ash 1.4 

Protein 9.7 

Carbohydrates 53 . 

Fat ' I 


Calories  in  100  grams,  266. 

The  calories  as  thus  calculated : 

Protein  and  carbohydrates,  [  (9-7+53.8)  =63.5]  X4=254.o. 

Fat,  i.3X9=ii-7- 


Total,  265.7. 

To  calculate  the  calories  in  an  ounce,  multiply  the  calories  in 
one  gram  by  28.4. 


8  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION   BULLETIN    196. 

How  Many  Calories  Does  the  Body  Need  Every  Day? 

The  amount  of  fuel  needed  to  run  any  kind  of  machinery  of 
course  depends  on  the  amount  of  work  which  it  is  doing.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  human  being.  When  more  work  or  harder 
work  is  done,  more  energy,  that  is,  more  food,  is  needed. 

It  is  clear  then  that  the  number  of  calories  required  in  the 
day's  ration  varies  with  the  amount  of  physical  exertion.  The 
age,  sex  and  body  weight  also  influence  the  food  requirement. 
For  instance,  there  are  many  adults  who  sit  at  their  work  and 
whose  physical  exercise  is  limited  to  their  daily  walk  to  and  from 
work.  These  require  about  2,500  calories  daily.  Those  who 
chiefly  stand  during  their  working  hours  require  3,000.  When 
the  muscular  work  is  constant  but  not  heavy,  3,300  calories. 
Farmers  need  3,500,  stone  masons  and  lumberman  4,500  to  5,000, 
and  so  on. 

The  following  table  summarizes  these  calor}^  requirements 
from  the  standpoint  of  age  and  of  occupation: 

Approximate  Number  of  Calories  Required  Daily. 

Based  on  Age.  Based  on  Occupation. 

1  yr 950      Clerk  at  desk 2,250 

2  yrs 1,100      Professional    man,    machiner}' 

3 —  4  yrs 1,300  watcher 2,500 

5 —  6  yrs. 1,400      Man  at  light  muscular  work. .2,800 

7 — 10  yrs 1,500      Bakers,  dentists,  shop-keepers, 

II — 14  yrs 1,600  conductors 3,000 

15 — 16  yrs 2,100      Carpenters,  painters 3,300 

17 — 18  yrs 2,250      Farmers 3>500 

Excavators 4,000 

Stone  masons 4,500 

A  ration  may  contain,  hoivcvcr,  the  prober  iniinbcr  of  calories 
and  yet  be  a  very  poor  ration  if  the  protein,  fat  and  carbohydate 
are  not  supplied  in  proper  relati'^e  amounts.  For  instance,  0.7 
lb.  of  butter,  or  1.2  lbs.  of  American  cheese,  or  1.3  lbs.  of  sugar, 
would  each  yield  2,500  calories,  yet  it  is  apparent  that  none  of 
these  foods  used  alone,  even  in  these  amounts,  would  constitute 
a  proper  ration. 

The  normal  man  of  sedentary  habits,  or  pcrfor)ni>ig  lighf 
labor,  should  receive  each  day  2.6  or.  0/  protein,  1.8  oc.  of  fat 
and  from  14  to  18  oc.  of  carbohydrates,  yielding  2,500  calories. 
In  the  selection  of  food  these  relations  must  be  kept  in  mind. 


THE  CALCULATION  OF  FOOD  REQUIREMENT.  9 

'The  average  American  dietary  contains  an  excess  of  protein; 
that  is,  we  eat  and  in  the  body  destroy  more  protein  than  the  body 
needs  to  repair  its  tissues.  This  excess  protein  has  no  greater 
fuel  vahie  than  so  much  sugar  and  starch,  and  when  we  remem- 
ber the  difference  in  cost  the  great  economic  waste  in  this  excess 
consumption  of  meat  and  other  protein  foods  is  apparent.  A 
properly  constituted  ration  should  contain  from  one-eighth  to 
one-sixth  of  its  calories  in  protein. 

A  typical  ration  containing  1,000  calories  is  given  by  Lusk  as 
follows :  ** 

Ounces         Calories 

Cooked  Beans   7^  400 

Pork I  234 

Bread    21-3  180 

Butter   y^  103 

Milk   5  ,       100 

Coffee    5  

Total    1,017 

In  this  ration  the  protein  yields  nearly  one-sixth  of  the  calor- 
ies, and  the  balance  is  therefore  correct.  In  normal  times  such 
a  ration  would  supply  one-third  the  daily  need  of  a  man  at  light 
work  at  a  cost  of  4.25  cents,  including  the  cost  of  fuel.  It  shows 
how  cheaply  one  can  supply  his  body  with  all  of  the  needed  nutri- 
ment when  normal  prices  prevail. 

How  Shall  This  Knowledge  of  Calories  Be  Applied  in  the 
'        Preparation  of  the  Daily  Meal? 

It  would  be  most  fortunate  if  tables  showing  the  composition 
of  our  staple  foods  could  be  in  every  home.*  However,  even  were 
this  the  case,  many  would  have  great  difficulty  in  making  the 
pr-oper  calculations  from  them. 

Gephart  and  Lusk  have  greatly  simplified  this  problem.  Their 
extensive  study  of  the  standard  portions  served  in  a  series  of 
chain  restaurants  in  New  York  City  gives  us  just  the  data  we 
require.     It  is  quite  probable  that  these  portions  represent  closely 

*  Such  tables  by  Atwater  and  Bryant  are  given  in  Bulletin  28  of  the 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

The  tables  are  also  contained  in  the  Report  of  the  Storrs  Agricultural 
Station  1899,  p.  in,  a  limited  number  of  copies  of  which  are  available 
for  distribution  in  this  State. 


lO  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION   BULLETIN    1 96. 

Calories  Yielded  by  Standard  Portions  of  Food. 


Food. 


Apple,  baked.  . 
«  "    and 


cream 

*Bacon,  broiled 

*Baconandeggs 

Bananas  .sliced 

jBeans,  Boston 
baked 

fBeef,    corned 
beef         hash 
with  poached 
egg 

fBeef,  corned 
beef  hash, 
browned.  . 

fBeef,  creamed 
chipped 

fBeef,  roast, 
cold 

fBeef,  roast, 
and  mashed 
potatoes. . . 

Bread  and  but- 
ter, f  in.  slice 
I  tsp.  butter 

Bread,  hot  corn 

Cakes,  wheat, 
and  syrup 

Cantaloupe .... 

Chicken  cro- 
quette and 
French  fried 
potatoes.  . . . 

f  Chicken  hash . 

Cocoa 

fCodfish, 

creamed,     on 
toast 

Coffee,     cup, 
cream       and 


CD   O 


sugar 

Corn,  stewed.  . 

Corn  flakes  and 
milk 

Corn  starch 
with  cream... 

Crackers,  gra- 
ham  

Crackers,  soda, 
and  milk 


ozs. 
•4 

.8 
6.5 
8.5 
3-5 

9-0 


6.25 

7.0 
10. o 

5-5 

10.5 


2.75 
5-5 

6.5 
4-5 


6.5 
6.5 
9.0 


9-5 

2.5 
9.0 
6.0 
2  .0 
10.5 


1.4 

5-8 

70.2 

148.1 

5-6 

102.1 


157.3 

97.5 
160.1 
155.7 

141.8 


28.0 
60.5 

49-9 
41 


77.5 
97.1 

32.9 

155.6 

27-5 
7.0 

54.7 

274 
21.4 
71.6 


137.2 

393-7 

760.8 

818. 1 

915 

509 -4 


680.0 

538.3 
536.3 
464.2 

539-6 


202  .0 
474.1 

476.2 
37-4 


499-7 
468.1 

256.7 


567.8 


202  .9 

5 


54 
237 
239 
230 

397 


Food. 


Cream 

Cream  of  wheat 

Crullers 

Custard,  cup 

Eclair,      choco- 
late  

fEggs,      boiled 
(2) 

fEggs,  creamed 
on  toast 

fEggs,  fried  (2) 

f  Fish  cakes  and 
poached  egg. 

fFrankfurts 
and    potato 
salad 

Grape  fruit 

*Ham,  broiled. 

*Ham  and  eggs 

Ice   cream,   va- 
nilla  

*Lamb      chops 
(2) 

*Liver  and  ba 
con 

f  Macaroni  and 
cheese 

Maple     flakes 
with  milk.  .  . 

Milk 

Muffins,  corn.  . 

Oatmeal       and 


i)  o 


cream 

f Omelet,  plain. 
Oysters,  raw. .  . 

Pie,  apple 

Pie,  mince.  .  .  . 
Potatoes, 

French  fried . 
Pudding,  bread 

custard 

Pudding,     rice, 

cold 

Pudding,  apple 

tapioca 

Rhubarb, 

stewed 

Rice,  boiled 

fSalad,        crab 

meat 


ozs. 

8-5 
7.0 
4-0 
7.0 

2.5 

4-5 

9-0 
6.0 

9-0 

10. o 
7-0 
9.0 

10. o 

5-0 

5-5 

9-0 

9.0 

9.0 

16.0 

3-5 

10. o 
6.0 

3-5 
50 
6.0 

5-0 

7-0 

8.0 

8.0 

4.0 
6.0 

8.5 


35-  5 
32.9 
46.0 
53.4 

19.2 

92.8 

146.6 
105.8 

129.5 

114.0 

6.3 
158.0 
181.9 

21 .9 
146.5 
177.5 

69.5 

64.0 
79.0 

35-9 

47-1 
117.2 
32.0 
20.9 
45-9 

31-8 

56.8 

43.6 

29.4 

4.0 
17.0 

140  9 


5159 
135-2 
457-0 
234-1 

193-4 
391.0 

663.9 
527-8 

603.8 

619.8 

79-0 

936.7 

842.6 

233-7 
852-9 
797.2 
382.8 

283.4 
312.8 

352.3 

396.3 

529-5 

64.9 

343-1 
401. 1 

329-8 

371-4 

275-4 

225-5 

95-0 
135-6 

437-7 


THE    CALCULATION    OF    FOOD    REQUIREMENT.  I 

Calories  Yielded  by  Standard  Portions  of  Food — Continued. 


Food. 


fSalad,  potato. 
Sandwich,  club 

"     fried  egg. 

"     ham 

"     roast  beef 

hot .  _. 

Sandwich, 

Swiss  cheese . 
Sausage,  coun- 
try  

Sausage        and 

fried  potatoes 
Shredded  wheat 

and  cream. . . 
Shreddedwheat 

and  milk 

Soup,         bean, 

with  croutons 
fSoup,  split  pea 


11 

(U  o 

6^ 

ClJf-l 

ozs. 

lO.O 

4-5 
5-0 

2.0 

50.9 

111.3 

59.8 

48.4 

448.3 
438.6 
276.0 
212. 1 

3-5 

69.3 

263.9 

2.0 

51.5 

258.5 

3-0 

57.6 

243-9 

6.0 

71.5 

521.7 

6.0 

56.4 

494-5 

10. o 

81.2 

404.5 

I0.5 

42.5 

180.8 

9.0 

45.9 

241. 1 

Food. 


fS  o  u  p,  vege- 
table  

*Steak,  Ham- 
burger  

*Steak,    small . 

fStew,  beef .... 

fStew,  lamb... . 

Toast,  buttered 

Toast,  milk . . . 

Tomatoes, 
sliced.. ..... 

Tomatoes, 
sliced,      with 
lettuce.. 

fVeal  cutlet 
and  tomato 
sauce.  .  .  . 

Watermelon 


'S  0 

0  0 

ozs. 

9-5 

35-1 

10. 0 

147.9 

10. 0 

237.5 

16.5 

148.4 

15.0 

146.8 

2.5 
8.0 

42.7 
59.4 

5-0 

6.7 

4-5 

8.2 

13.0 

177.8 

38.0 

27.6 

206. 1 

723.8 

1032.8 

641.4 

622.2 

3II-3 

333-5 
32.2 


52.1 


897.8 
244.3 


*  Potatoes  and  bread  and  butter  served, 
t  Bread  and  butter  served. 

enough  the  amounts  served  in  the  average  home,  to  be  a  useful 
guide  in  making  up  rations  and  in  substituting  cheaper  for  more 
expensive  foods. 

The  foregoing  table  is  an  abridgment  of  their  tables,  somewhat 
simplified  and  recalculated  in  common  terms.  {  The  first  column 
gives  the  food  served,  an  asterisk  (*)  indicating  that  bread  and 
butter  and  potatoes  were  served  with  it,  and  a  dagger  (f)  that 
bread  and  butter  were  served ;  the  second  column  gives  the  ap- 
proximate weight  of  the  portion  in  ounces ;  the  third  column,  the 
calories  yielded  from  the  protein  in  the  portion ;  and  the  fourtii 
column  the  total  calories  yielded. 

Two  important  points  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  using  this  table. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  protein  in  the  ration  should  come 


X  Anyone  interested  in  the  facts  which  they  give  will  find  the  full 
compilation  in  a  pamphlet  of  84  pages,  Analysis  and  Cost  of  Ready-to- 
Serve  Foods,  by  Gephart  and  Lusk,  published  by  the  American  Medical 
Association,  535  N.  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago,  111. 


12  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION   BULLETIN    ig6. 

from  animal  sources,  such  as  poultry,  milk,  fish  or  eg;.''s ;  and 
about  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  calories  should  be  derived  from  the 
protein.  The  name  of  the  dish  will  generally  indicate  whether 
animal  protein  is  present,  and  in  the  protein  calories  column 
full  faced  type  is  used  where  at  least  15  per  cent,  of  the  total 
calories  is  derived  from  protein. 

To  illustrate  the  practical  use  of  the  table :  portions  of  Boston 
baked  beans,  chicken  croquettes,  creamed  codfish  on  toast,  two 
fried  eggs  (all  four  served  with  bread  and  butter)  and  cream, 
wheat  cakes  with  syrup,  and  crullers,  all  yield  about  500  calories 
per  portion,  and  approximately  five  portions  of  each  of  these  would 
be  necessary  to  supply  the  daily  requirement  of  2,500  calories. 
These  seven  foods  may  be  divided  into  two  groups.  The  first 
four  derive  at  least  15  per  cent,  of  their  calories  from  protein, 
and  in  all  but  the  baked  beans  this  protein  is  chiefly  from  an  ani- 
mal source ;  the  last  three  foods  are  all  deficient  in  protein.  It  is 
obvious,  therefore,  that  cold  roast  beef,  creamed  codfish  and  fried 
eggs  might  be  interchanged  in  the  daily  ration  without  disturbing 
the  balance  and  at  the  same  time  supplying  proper  nutriment.  In 
other  words,  five  portions  of  any  of  these  three  foods  served  with 
bread  and  butter  would  provide  sufficient  protein  and  calories 
for  the  daily  need  of  a  light  worker.  Five  portions  of  baked 
beans  would  not  do  this,  for  while  the  total  nutriment  would  be 
sufficient,  no  animal  protein  would  be  supplied.  Five  portions  of 
either  cream,  or  wheat  cakes,  or  crullers,  would  be  unsatisfactory 
because  in  each  case  too  little  protein  would  be  provided. 

Of  course,  the  foregoing  illustration  is  not  meant  as  a  sug- 
gestion to  limit  one's  daily  food  to  cold  roast  beef,  creamed  cod- 
fish and  fried  eggs,  served  with  bread  and  butter.  Such  a  ration 
would  be  adequate,  and  probably  for  a  limited  time  mig-ht  be 
satisfactory,  but  personal  taste  must  rule  in  suggesting  modifica- 
tions of  this  ration  which  will  increase  variety  and  palatability 
and  which  will  furnish  bulk,  a  characteristic  wanting  in  many 
American  meals  and  one  most  essential  to  health. 

The  foregoing  table  may  also  be  used  to  determine  whether 
the  daily  food  (ration)  is  adequate  or  excessive. 

To  illustrate,  there  follows  a  day's  bill  of  fare  of  one  of  the 
Station  stafif  and  the  corresponding  energy  value  (calories)  as 
given  in  the  table : 


THE  CALCULATION  OF  FOOD  REQUIREMENT.         1 3 

„        If,  Calories 

Breakfast;  In  Protein.  Total. 

One  cup  coffee  with  cream  and  sugar 27.5  202  . 9 

One  apple 1.4  1372 

Oatmeal  and  milk 50.2  281.0 

One  thick  slice  rye  bread  and  butter 28.0  202.0 

Dinner 

Bean  soup  with  croutons 42  •  5  1 80 . 8 

Roast  beef  and  mashed  potatoes 141 .  8  539 . 6 

Stewed  corn 7.0  54-5 

Apple  tapioca  pudding 29.4  225.5 

Supper 

Macaroni  and  cheese 69 . 5  382.8 

Two  slices  rye  bread  and  butter,  .' , 56.0  404 .  o 

Apple  sauce 2.8  274 . 4 

Chocolate  layer  cake 20.7  218.3 

476.8  3103.0 

It  appears  that  the  calories  in  the  protein  of  the  ration  make 
15.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  calories,  which  is  near  to  the  standard 
15.  The  total  calories,  however,  considerably  exceed  the  stand- 
ard of  2,500. 

Considering,  however,  that  the  portions  given  in  the  table  are 
restaurant  portions  and  rather  larger  on  the  average  than  a  man 
at  light  work  takes  at  his  own  table,  the  ration  seems  satisfac- 
tory. On  the  "meatless"  days  creamed  codfish,  fish  cakes  and 
poached  egg,  or  plain  omelet  will  be  substituted  for  roast  beef  or 
any  other  meats. 


The  foregoing  discussion  concerns  the  principles  of  nutrition 
and  may  be  helpful  as  a  general  guide  to  the  housewife  in  the 
control  of  diet.  On  her,  in  the  final  analysis,  depends  very 
largely  the  efficiency  of  the  community. 

Her  first  problem  is  to  supply  enough  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious food  for  the  family.  It  is  false  economy  at  this  time  in  any 
way  to  make  the  diet  less  efficient. 

The  next  problems  are — to  save  the  family  expense  and  to  les-. 
sen  the  home  demand  for  such  foods  as  wheat,  beef  and  pork, 
sugar  and  fats,  which  are  needed  to  send  abroad  to  our  own  and 
our  allies'  armies.     In  families  with  very  small  incomes  the  first 


14  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION  BULLETIN    196. 

of  these  two  problems  is  the  more  pressing;  in  families  with 
larger  incomes  patriotism  requires  personal  sacrifice  in  the  mat- 
ter of  family  expense,  when  it  is  necessary  for  a  great  national 
work.  For  instance,  families  with  very  limited  means  cannot 
substitute  poultry  and  eggs  for  beef  or  pork,  when  the  former  are 
more  expensive.  The  well-to-do  can  and  should  do  this,  so  far 
as  practicable. 

Economies  are  to  be  effected  by  personal  instead  of  telephone 
marketing,  by  getting  a  variety  of  food  which  includes  a  liberal 
supply  of  vegetables,  by  skill  in  adapting  the  diet  to  personal  dif- 
ferences in  taste  and  in  efficiency  of  digestion,  as  well  as  in  the 
preparation  of  attractive  and  appetizing  dishes. 

If  any  very  radical  change  in  diet  is  to  be  made,  it  should  be 
brought  about  gradually.  A  sudden  or  violent  change  is  likely 
to  produce  disturbance  of  digestion  and  temporarily,  at  least,  im- 
pair efficiency.  Many  people,  for  instance,  would  be  seriously 
affected  if  rye  or  corn  bread  were  eaten  to  the  exclusion  of 
wheat  bread,  for  a  period  of  two  weeks,  and  would  be  prejudiced 
against  any  use  of  them  forever  afterwards.  If,  however,  either 
rye  or  com  breal  is  used  at  first  quite  sparingly  and  not  contin- 
uously, it  may  come  to  be  regarded  rather  as  a  grateful  change 
and  as  a  delicacy  than  as  the  outward  and  visible  sign  of  an 
inward  and  spiritual  resignation  to  the  physical  hardship  of  war- 
time. The  use  of  these  wheat  substitutes,  therefore,  begim  in 
this  way,  is  more  likely  in  the  end  to  lessen  the  family  consump- 
tion of  wheat,  than  a  more  sudden  and  radical  change.  It  may, 
indeed,  create  a  tolerance  for  and  a  liking  of  them  which  will 
outlast  the  war  and  be  of  considerable  economic  advantage. 

Feeding  a  family  has  a  psycological  side  which  is  often  over- 
looked. The  mental  attitude  of  the  family,  as  well  as  the  cook- 
book, needs  to  be  studied. 

The  following  books  treat  of  the  various  phases  of  the  science 
of  nutrition  and  can  be  recommended  to  those  who  wish  to  be- 
come more  fully  acquainted  with  the  subject: 

Mendel,  L.  B.  Changes  in  the  Food  Supply  and  their 
Relation  to  Nutrition.  Yale  Univer- 
sity Press,  New  Haven So.  50 

Lusk,  Graham.  The  Basis  of  Nutrition.  Yale  Univer- 
sity Press,  New  Haven 50 


THE    CALCULATION   OF   FOOD    REQUIREMENT.  15 

Sherman,  H.  C.     Chemistry     of     Food     and    Nutrition. 

MacMillan,  N.  Y 1.50 

Stern  &  Spitz.      Food  for  the  Worker.      Whitcomb   & 

Barrows,  Boston i .  00 

Green,  Mary.        Better  Meals  for  Less  Money.     Henry 

Holt  &  Co.,  N.  Y 1. 25 

Rose,  Mary  S.  Feeding  the  Family.  MacMillan,  N.Y..  2.20 
Rose,  Mary  S.       Laboratory    Handbook    for     Dietetics. 

MacMillan,  N.  Y i .  10 

Gephart  &  Lusk.    Analysis  and  Cost   of    Ready-to-Serve 

Foods.    Amer.  Med.  Assn.",  Chicago. 


University  of 
Connecticut 

Libraries 


